In his speech at Fulton, Missouri in the summer of 1946 Mr. Churchill for the first time mentioned the term "Iron Curtain". He called the attention of all democratic countries to the aggression of Soviet Russia. Though his speech was widely read by the peoples of the world, it did not succeed in exerting influence upon the British foreign policy because Mr. Churchill at that time was no longer the prime minister.
It was in March, 1947, that the democratic countries began to take concrete action against the aggression of Communism. By that time Soviet Russia had already strengthened her position in Eastern Europe. Pointing her guns towards the Mediterranean Sea, Soviet Russia was in a position to menace the freedom of Greece and Turkey. On March 12, 1947, President Harry S. Truman delivered a speech asking Congress to appropriate $400,000,000 for economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey to combat Communism and for the defense of freedom. Mr. Truman's proposal was approved by Congress. Known as the Truman Doctrine, this was the first fundamental step taken by the democratic countries to check the aggression of Communism.
The United States "Policy of Containment" was first stated publicly in an article appearing in Foreign Affairs in July 1947 and signed simply "X". It is later known that it was written by Mr. George F. Kennan, a counselor and expert on Soviet affairs in the Department of State. Under this policy, the democratic countries were to join together to stop the encroachment of Soviet Communism. If and when the Soviet Communists carried out their aggressive plans anywhere, the United States would try to stop such actions immediately. Because there were basic weak points in the Soviet system, it was believed that the Soviet Union would collapse in ten or fifteen years if she was confined within her present domain. Although Kennan's article was published under a pseudonym, it accurately reflected the policy of the United States during the years of the Truman administration since George C. Marshall and then Dean Acheson, as Secretary of State, relied heavily on Kennan as the expert on Soviet affairs.
The policy of containment unfolded gradually after March 1947. In June 1947 at Harvard University, General Marshall promised aid to European nations striving towards rehabilitation. This policy was instituted for the defense of the countries in Europe against Communism but he did not say a word about anti-communism. It was believed that poverty nourished the growth of Communism; and the Marshall Plan was to restore production and to raise living standards so as to enable the free nations to strengthen themselves into a consolidated democratic bloc in Europe and to resist the temptation of Communism. Soviet Russia knew this well, so it and its satellites refused to associate with this plan. Czechoslovakia at first wanted to cooperate with the U.S. but due to pressure from the Soviet Union, it gave up its wish later.
Soviet Russia put Czechoslovakia behind the Iron Curtain in February 1948, when President Benes of Czechoslovakia yielded to the Communists' demand to install a pro-Soviet cabinet and later he was forced to resign. Later in that year, the Soviet occupation forces in Berlin enforced a land blockade of the Allied sectors in the former German capital. These Communist aggressive acts alarmed the democracies and greatly expedited the execution of the policy of containment. In the same year, England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, at a conference in Brussels signed a five-nation 50-year security pact. In April 1949, the United States, Canada and ten Western nations concluded the North Atlantic Treaty which is virtually a defensive alliance. In his inauguration speech in January 1949, President Harry S. Truman proposed to give technical aid to underdeveloped areas of the world, known as "Point Four". Since then, the United States of America has been giving economic aid not only to the European countries but also to all underdeveloped countries in the world.
The policy of containment has been successful to some extent. The Truman Doctrine helped Turkey and Greece to stay out of the Iron Curtain. The economic conditions in Western European countries have immensely improved as the U. S. spent from 1948 to 1952, under the program of the Marshall Plan, approximately 11 billion dollars. At the conclusion of the last war, many people in France and Italy followed Communism simply because they were unemployed and poor. As a consequence the Communist Party won more seats than any other single party in the parliaments of Italy and France. However, thanks to the aid provided by the Marshall Plan, these people would no longer answer the call of Communists when they found that their living standard had been raised by the increased production after the successful rehabilitation of European industries. In recent years, the Communists in France and Italy have lost heavily both in national and local elections and their potential power has been considerably reduced. After the conclusion of the Five-Power Security Pact and the North Atlantic Treaty, Soviet Russia has found it more difficult to carry out its expansion in Western Europe.
But there are two defects in the policy of containment. Firstly, under this policy, the democratic countries merely wish to maintain the status quo without any intention to solve the problems of conflict fundamentally. They hold a passive attitude towards Communist aggression. As Walter Lipmann said in "The Cold War", the meaning of the policy of containment is "holding the line and hoping for the best". The success of this policy largely depends upon the collapse of the Soviet Union by itself; but nobody can prove that the Soviet Union is going to collapse. In its nature, the policy of containment is mainly defensive and permits the Communists to take the initiative; while the democratic countries will be out of breath trying to resist Communist acts. Secondly, by concentrating their attention on Europe, the policy makers have overlooked the expansion of Communism in Asia. President Truman and his Secretary of State were strong in their belief that Europe should come first. In addition to this misconception, they were deceived by the Chinese Communists. They thought that the Chinese Communists, not related in any way to Soviet Communists, were "agrarian reformers". They made great effort to combat Communism in Europe but took a hands-off attitude in Asia. Even though the Communist expansion in Western Europe had been checked, since 1947 they had greatly succeeded in their advances in Asia. After the Chinese Communists had overrun the mainland, the Russians virtually became masters in China and strengthened underground activities in Japan, Korea, Indo-China, Thailand, Burma, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaya and India. It was not until the Communists started to invade South Korea in June 1950, that the American statesmen began to see that the emphasis of the containment policy in Europe alone is not workable. President Truman ordered General Douglas MacArthur to speed military supplies to the Republic of Korea. The emergency meeting of the Security Council of the United Nations adopting the motion of the U. S. declared the invasion an aggressive action and requested member nations to send military forces to help Korea. In the meantime President Truman ordered the U. S. 7th Fleet to prevent any attack on Formosa because the occupation of Formosa by the Chinese Communists would be a direct threat to the security of the Pacific area. Since the outbreak of the Korean War, the United States has increased military and economic aid to Free China, the Philippines, Thailand, and Indo-China. On August 30 and September 1, 1951, the Mutual Defense Treaty was respectively signed between the United States and Republic of the Philippines, and the United States, the Commonwealth of Australia and the Dominion of New Zealand. After the conclusion of the Japanese Peace Treaty, a security treaty was signed between the United States and Japan. Military aid from the United States has amounted to several billion dollars annually, even though the Marshall Plan had ended by the end of 1952. For the defense of Europe, the Western countries have agreed to work out the plan that has long been talked about. As a result of the efforts made by Generals Eisenhower and Ridgway, 25 divisions, with another 25 divisions in reserve, of the European Army have been formed. This is indeed a great improvement in strength as compared with the undefended conditions of Europe three years ago.
The first weak point of the policy of containment no longer exists after the democratic countries have taken definite measures to stop the invasion of Communists in Asia since the Korean War; but the second weak point remains. Discontented with the policy of containment of the Democratic administration, the Republicans severely criticized it in the presidential election of 1952. In their campaign speeches, General Eisenhower and Mr. John Foster Dulles advocated the "Policy of Liberation" to replace the "Policy of Containment".
Considering the Policy of Containment to be incompetent in nature, Mr. Dulles said on October 12, 1952 in the Foreign, Policy Association ill Chicago, that the Policy of Containment had not been successful when the population under the control of the Soviet Union was 200 million and posed the question whether it was feasible when the Soviet Union now controlled 800 million people? He believed that it was America's moral responsibility to liberate the peoples behind the Iron Curtain. He said that the policy of containment was like confining a bear in a cage. It would be foolish and dangerous to lock our friends and relatives together with the bear. Answering questions in the Foreign Relations Committee of the U. S. Senate before he assumed the post as Secretary of State, Mr. Dulles said on January 15, 1953, that the policy of containment was doomed to fail because a defensive policy could not in any way beat the policy of aggression. Mr. Dulles saw the danger that, though the expansion of the Soviet Union might be temporarily checked by the execution of the containment policy, the Communists with vast land and unlimited man-power would remain a deadly foe to the free world. Under such conditions, there could hardly be any peace for the free world. Owing to these reasons, he recommended the "Policy of Liberation". He said that in order to end the global threat of communism, it was necessary to seize every opportunity to cherish the hope of liberating people of the world. He further emphasized that to liberate the Soviet enslaved peoples should be forever kept in our mind.
Up to the present, Mr. Dulles has not yet issued any statement concerning the definite measures to be taken under the policy of liberation. In his first broadcast speech, as Secretary of State, Mr. Dulles said, "A few people here and there in private life have suggested that a war with Soviet Russia was inevitable, and said time is running against us. President Eisenhower is absolutely opposed to any such policy and so of course am I and all of my associates in the State Department and the Foreign Service. We shall never choose war as the instrument of our policy". After World War II, 15 countries including Yugoslavia, India, Burma and Indonesia have been liberated by peaceful means as pointed out by Mr. Dulles. He believed that liberation could be accomplished "short of war". He said that just by spreading propaganda, by waging psychological warfare and not by using the strength of the Red Army, the Soviet Union had in a period of seven years expanded its control from 200 million people to 800 million. Since the Soviet Union was able to make use of psychological warfare, there was no reason why the democratic countries could not do the same. In forming his policy, Mr. Dulles stressed the importance of psychological warfare. On the one hand, the people of the free world would be guided to build up their spiritual strength and on the other, by carrying out a campaign of psychological warfare, the peoples behind the Iron Curtain could be won over by the free world to rise against the Communist rule. Mr. Dulles said that it would be for the enslaved peoples to decide as to how and when they would be liberated. The enslaved peoples should be held responsible for their own liberation. But he also said that the United States should not remain indifferent or become "silent partner of the Soviet Union". Asking the American people to help prosecute the psychological warfare, he declared that the people of the United States should set an example to demonstrate how much better democracy is than dictatorship.
Under the direction of the new administration, the policy of liberation will be carried out step by step. However, in the short period of only a few months, it is yet too early to see the real achievement. Reading the texts of Eisenhowers' and Dulles' speeches and their answers to the questions submitted at press conferences, we are able to see the main course of their policies. In his inauguration speech, President Eisenhower said, "These principle are: (1) Abhorring war as a chosen way to balk the purpose of those who threaten us, we hold it to be the first task of statesmenship to develop the strength that will deter the forces of aggression,………… (2) We shall never try to placate an aggressor by the false and wicked bargain of trading honor for security". In other words, the Republican Administration is not to pursue a policy of appeasing the aggressors. In Europe they are making efforts to build, up the army under the European Defense Plan, while in Asia, in trying to do the best to end the Korean War, the United States Government has ordered the 7th Fleet not to shield the coast of the Communist occupied mainland so as to add pressure upon the Chinese Reds.
At this juncture, Joseph Stalin died on March 5 and Georgi M. Malenkov took his position immediately. In a series of acts known as the peace offensive, the Communists made the following moves: (1) Inside Soviet Russia, an amnesty was proclaimed for thousands of petty offenders and reversed the order of Stalin by releasing 15 Soviet doctors. (2) Prices of commodities were lowered. (3) Traffic control was relaxed on Soviet check-points on the highways between Berlin and West Germany. (4) Interference with the broadcast of the Voice of America ceased. (5) 14 Frenchmen who had been detained in North Korea were released. (6) Andrei Y. Vishinsky took a comparatively friendly attitude in the United Nations. (7) Malenkov pointed out that all problems between the U. S. and the U. S. S. R. could be settled by peaceful means. (8) Chou En-lai announced willingness to accept General Mark Clark's proposal and suggested resumption of truce talks at Panmunjom. Now the representatives of both commands have sat down for several times to negotiate an armistice, after the exchange of sick and wounded war prisoners had taken place.
Why does the Soviet Union choose to act like this? I think it is because of the following reasons: (1) In order to strengthen their power in Soviet Russia and to tighten the control of the satellite countries, it is necessary for Malenkov and Company to gain time by adopting mild policies. (2) As the Eisenhower administration carries out the policy of liberation, the United States is going to have the upper hand in the cold war. This is disastrous to the U. S. S. R. Therefore, the U. S. S. R. chooses to change its tactics into a peace offensive to lure the Americans into an illusion for peace, so that American efforts to stop the aggression of Communism may be relaxed. In the meantime the peace offensive may drive a wedge into the democracies and thus loosen their ties. (3) Under the camouflage of the exchange of sick and wounded war prisoners and the resumption of the truce talks that may divert the attention of the free world, the Communists are going to set their program of expansion in motion in some other part of the world. There is not the slightest indication to show that the Communists will undertake a fundamental change of policy. The present gestures are but a change of tactics to work towards the same goal of world domination.
With their past experience in dealing with the Russians, the U. S. statesmen this time are not likely to be taken in by the Soviet plots. At a press conference on April 3, Mr. Dulles pointed out that the Communists, with a small group of people to rule the Soviet Union, are hostile to all the non-communist countries. Observing no moral principle, they never hesitate to use brute force. The gestures made during the course of the peace offensive do not in any sense indicate the least change in their fundamental policy. Later in the NATO Council he called the attention of the NATO powers to his view that the free world should not, because of the Soviet peace offensive, relax in making efforts in European defense.
In response to the Soviet gestures of peace, President Eisenhower delivered a foreign policy speech on April 16, asking Malenkov to prove his peaceful intentions by deeds, not by words. He stated the specific steps for the Russian leaders to demonstrate their peaceful intentions: (1) The Soviet Union agree to conclude an honorable armistice in Korea. This must be followed by political discussion leading to the holding of free elections in a united Korea. (2) The Soviet Union use her influence to end the direct and indirect attacks upon the security of Indo-China and Malaya. (3) The Soviet Union agree to conclude a treaty with Austria which will free that country from economic exploitation and occupation by foreign troops. (4) The European community shall include a free and united Germany, with a government based upon free and secret elections. (5) East European nations be given full freedom to choose their political system and to join international organizations. (6) International control of atomic energy be agreed upon to promote its use for peaceful purposes only and to ensure the prohibition of atomic weapons. It is to be regretted by us that the problem of China was not mentioned in the speech. Except that there was no reference to China, the major policy speech is to be praised for its greatness by all freedom-loving peoples of the world. There has been no response from Malenkov. But about a week after the speech, the Pravda, Russia's official Communist Party newspaper, published editorially an elaborate reply which criticized the President in a general way but did not answer the concrete terms proposed by him. Immediately afterwards, the Communists began to invade Laos. On May 8 President Eisenhower and Prime Minister St. Laurent of Canada issued a joint statement blaming the invasion of Laos as a new act of aggression and expressing doubt of Communist intentions.
President Eisenhower's policy of liberation appeared to be much more logical than President Truman's policy of containment which has failed to stop the aggression of Communism. But as far as we can see, to deal with the Communists, it is not enough just to launch a psychological warfare and a campaign of propaganda. Without aid from outside, how can millions of people behind the Iron Curtain liberate themselves empty-handedly from the control of the Red Army and the Soviet secret police? Even though they wished to get rid of their yoke, they could not do it. Obviously it is undesirable for the United Stated to engage in a war with Soviet Russia, but we feel that it is necessary for the United States to render military and economic aid to the enslaved peoples behind the Iron Curtain so as to make them strong enough to determine their own fate. It is especially, important to assist the enslaved people on the Chinese mainland. Although the mainland has been occupied by the Communists, yet a Free China exists on the Island of Formosa. The Chinese people on the mainland and the eleven million Chinese nationals residing overseas all pin their hopes for the future on Free China. The Communist regime has not been successful in governing the vast country even with its immense military force while the Chinese cultural tradition fundamentally contradicts the theory of Communism. During the four years of occupation, the Communists could hardly stabilize their regime as the hatred and grievance among the people have increased steadily. If the Chinese forces on Formosa and guerillas on the mainland could be supplied with adequate equipment, it would be much easier to liberate the Chinese mainland than to liberate any country in Eastern Europe. Other peoples behind the Iron Curtain will naturally join the campaign for freedom in the event that the 450 million people in China are liberated. Unless and until the Soviet Union is compelled to withdraw to the territory it had before World War II, we cannot consider that the final goal of the policy of liberation has been achieved.
American statesmen now know the Communist menace well enough. It is to be hoped that the European leaders, especially British politicians, will soon be aware of the danger of Communist aggression and will give up the idea of appeasement. No matter where it is—in Korea, in Southeast Asia, in China, in Eastern Europe—it is necessary that all fruits of communist aggression must be destroyed. Those countries that have recognized the puppet Communist regime in Peiping ought to withdraw their recognition and join the united front to fight Communism. We fully understand that the people in the Western democracies abhor the idea of war and we certainly sympathize with them, but we strongly believe that war can only be avoided if the democratic countries take a firm stand with adequate preparations for any eventuality. In that case the Soviet Union will be cautious in pushing forward its plan for world domination. It is appeasement that fosters the acts of aggression and causes the danger of another great war. The Munich Agreement signed by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain to appease Hitler which brought about World War II should always be remembered.